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Spread over four sheets, this topographical map was based on the explorations of the French civil servant Auguste Pavie. Lasting 16 years (1879–1895), his ‘Missions Pavie’ explored all of mainland Southeast Asia.

The borders on this mid-19th century map of mainland Southeast Asia are colour-coded to show kingdoms, countries and colonial territories. Twelve different scales are shown, as different countries used different measurement systems.

Marine chart of the Pacific Ocean, including Southeast Asia. Small islands, shoals and reefs are marked, and often named, around the seas and straits of the region.

From ‘Lizars' Edinburgh Geographical General Atlas’, this mid-19th century map was based on an earlier map by the English cartographer John Cary. It highlights the mountain ranges and rivers of Southeast Asia, and also features many place names.

Dutch map of the East Indies, with mountain ranges represented by simple hachure marks, and just a few rivers marked. Mainland Southeast Asia is labelled ‘Achter Indie [Beyond India]’.

Dutch map of the East Indies, with mountain ranges represented by simple hachure marks, and just a few rivers marked. Mainland Southeast Asia is labelled ‘Achter Indie [Beyond India]’.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

Coloured borders are used on this map to divide mainland Southeast Asia into empires and kingdoms. Mountains, rivers and major settlements are shown in land, with islands, shoals and reefs marked in the South China Sea.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.

Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.

On this map of Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: Russian, British, Dutch, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Danish.