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A late 18th century map of Asia published in London by John Bowles, with regions indicated by colour. Central Borneo is labelled ‘Part inhabited by the Biayos’, which is seen on many contemporary maps, often with the comment ‘a savage people’.

Nautical charts, like this late 18th century example of the north-west coast of Borneo, were designed to help ships navigate. The numbers marked along the coastline and sea routes indicate the depth of the sea (bathymetry).

Nautical charts like this are detailed around the coasts and on the seas (e.g. river mouths, islands, shoals and reefs) while the interiors are blank. The web of lines is a rhumbline network, while the numbers indicate sea depth (bathymetry).

Maritime routes had to be adjusted in response to the changing monsoon seasons, as is seen on this late 18th century map of the Indian Ocean. Drawings of the heads of children blowing—called ‘wind-heads’—are used to indicate wind direction.

Map of the Gaspar Strait, off the east coast of Sumatra. The web of lines is a rhumbline network, numbers indicate sea depth (bathymetry), and there are side views of islands (elevations), all to aid navigation. Five 18th century routes are marked.

Navigation chart of the east coast of mainland Southeast Asia, from Cambodia to China. Islands, shoals and reefs are marked, along with bathymetry (sea depth). There are seven side views of islands (elevations) to use as landmarks.

A map to aid navigation around the Touranne Bay (Bay of Turon, location of modern city of Da Nang, Vietnam). The web of lines is a rhumbline network, and bathymetry (sea depth), anchor points and two elevation views of the coasts are shown.

There is a port at the south of this map of the Côn Đảo archipelago (Vietnam), and notes giving details such as a suitable location to careen ships (turning a ship on its side for cleaning or repair). A ruined English fort is also marked.

Map of the Batavia (Jakarta) and Bantam (Bantem) roadsteads (a body of water sheltered from tides/currents, for ships to anchor). Shoals, reefs and bathymetry (sea depth) are marked, with explanatory notes and a rhumbline network to aid navigation.

A map of the China Sea between Malaya, Sumatra and Borneo. The numbers indicate sea depth (bathymetry), and there are drawings of the side views of some of the islands (elevations), both used to aid navigation. Some maritime routes are also marked.

This late 18th century map features a number of labels describing the local populations, including the Kemoys ('Savage People') of the mountains of Cokin China (Vietnam), the Biayos of Borneo, and the 'Wild People' of the mountains of Pegu (Myanmar).

A late 18th century navigation map of the waters between the islands of Java, Madura and Bali. The web of lines is a rhumbline network, the numbers indicate sea depth (bathymetry), and there is an inset map of the Bay of Ballambouang, Java.