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Spread over four sheets, this topographical map was based on the explorations of the French civil servant Auguste Pavie. Lasting 16 years (1879–1895), his ‘Missions Pavie’ explored all of mainland Southeast Asia.

The borders on this mid-19th century map of mainland Southeast Asia are colour-coded to show kingdoms, countries and colonial territories. Twelve different scales are shown, as different countries used different measurement systems.

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Cochin-China), administrative districts (Malay States) and colonial possessions (Straits Settlements). Extensive mountainous areas are also featured.

Marine chart of the Pacific Ocean, including Southeast Asia. Small islands, shoals and reefs are marked, and often named, around the seas and straits of the region.

This mid-19th century map of mainland Southeast Asia is divided into regions with colour-coded borders. The Birman Empire/Birmah (Myanmar) is the most detailed, with 10 provinces marked and listed in the map’s legend.

On this map of Asia, colours are used to show the colonial territories of the European powers: cities in the Philippines are underlined in blue, indicating they are Spanish; the Dutch East Indies are in yellow (Dutch); and Singapore is red (British).

On this map of Asia, colours are used to show the colonial territories of the European powers: cities in the Philippines are underlined in blue, indicating they are Spanish; the Dutch East Indies are in yellow (Dutch); and Singapore is red (British).

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

Coloured borders are used on this map to divide mainland Southeast Asia into empires and kingdoms. Mountains, rivers and major settlements are shown in land, with islands, shoals and reefs marked in the South China Sea.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.

Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.