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The route between Saigon and Rangoon taken by the German ethnologist Adolf Bastian is marked on this map of mainland Southeast Asia. There are two inset maps of cites: Mandalay, Amarapura and Ava in Burma; and Bangkok in Siam (including 14 temples).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Cochin-China), administrative districts (Malay States) and colonial possessions (Straits Settlements). Extensive mountainous areas are also featured.

Dutch map of the East Indies, with mountain ranges represented by simple hachure marks, and just a few rivers marked. Mainland Southeast Asia is labelled ‘Achter Indie [Beyond India]’.

Dutch map of the East Indies, with mountain ranges represented by simple hachure marks, and just a few rivers marked. Mainland Southeast Asia is labelled ‘Achter Indie [Beyond India]’.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

Map from Johannes Olivier’s book ‘Land- en Zeetogten in Nederland's Indie [Land and Sea Journeys in the Dutch Indies]’, showing European colonial possessions and indigenous kingdoms in Asia.

Map from Johannes Olivier’s book ‘Land- en Zeetogten in Nederland's Indie [Land and Sea Journeys in the Dutch Indies]’, showing European colonial possessions and indigenous kingdoms in Asia.

This map of Asia, from an atlas by the German cartographer Karl von Spruner, is colour-coded to show the colonial possessions of the European powers—Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, France, Britain and Denmark—at the end of the 17th century.