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This 18th century map of Southeast Asia by the French cartographer Gilles Robert de Vaugondy features the national borders of the Philippines in green, and of modern Indonesia in yellow. The Malay Peninsula and modern Cambodia and Vietnam are in red.

A map of a small island chain off the west coast of the island of Gilola (modern Halmahera in the Maluku Islands of Indonesia). The military forts on the islands were used by the European colonial powers during conflicts over the area’s spice trade.

Map of the ‘Spice Islands’ of maritime Southeast Asia, including the Maluku Islands. It is decorated with a drawing of an Asian man holding a large bird and a spear, and surrounded by baskets and boxes of goods of the spice trade.

This map of India and Southeast Asia—or ‘Indiae Orientalis [East Indies]’ as it was called at the time—was published in a book documenting the travels of the German scholar and geographer Adam Olearius (1599–1671).

Map of a small island chain off the west coast of Gilolo (modern Halmahera in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia). Italian text describes the larger islands (Ternate and Tidore) and the Philippines. From Vicenzo Coronelli's ‘Corso Geografico Universale’.

The islands on this map were central to conflicts between the European powers over the valuable spice trade of the Maluku or ‘Spice’ Islands. A sea battle between European ships is shown, and there are military forts marked in red on the islands.

This colourful mid-17th century map was originally published in the Dutch cartographer Nicolaes Visscher's ‘Atlas contractus’. The map is dedicated to D. Henry Spiegel, consul and senator of the city of Amsterdam, and features his coat of arms.

A mid-17th century map by the Dutch cartographer Jan Jansson, depicting a small chain of six islands off the west coast of Gilolo (modern Halmahera, in the Indonesian Maluku Islands). German text on the reverse describes the Maluku Islands.

Unusually, north is located to the left of this map of East Asia, rather than the top. The text notes that shallows and reefs are marked, and that the map is based on the explorations of Portuguese ships. Illustrations include sea monsters and ships.

South is orientated towards the top of this map, with maritime Southeast Asia in the upper half and the mainland below. Top right is Java (‘Iava Magiore [Java Major]’); Borneo is labelled ‘Iava Menore [Java Minor]’. Ships and sea monsters are at sea.

This 1550 map by the German cartographer Sebastian Münster (1488–1552) was based on the work of the 2nd century geographer Ptolemy. There are many inaccuracies, especially in scale and the locations of mountain ranges, but the region is recognisable.

This 1540 map by the German cartographer Sebastian Münster (1488–1552) was based on the work of the 2nd century geographer Ptolemy. On the reverse, there is Latin text giving details of the area, including crops grown.