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A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: British, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Danish.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: British, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Danish.

Map of Southeast Asia highlighting European colonial possessions. Unusually, the south coast of the Philippine island of Mindanao is shown twice, reflecting uncertainty about its true location. Names of indigenous peoples are listed on Borneo.

This map of Asia is from the earliest version of ‘Stielers Handatlas’ by the German cartographers Adolf Stieler and Christian Gottlieb Reichard. The maps were initially published separately; later editions compiled them into book form.

This map of Asia is from the earliest version of ‘Stielers Handatlas’ by the German cartographers Adolf Stieler and Christian Gottlieb Reichard. The maps were initially published separately; later editions compiled them into book form.

Map of the Birman Empire and Assam (modern Myanmar) with detailed text describing the region’s geography, culture, population, religion, government and history. There is an inset map highlighting Burmese islands off the coast of the Malay Peninsula.

Map of the Birman Empire and Assam (modern Myanmar) with detailed text describing the region’s geography, culture, population, religion, government and history. There is an inset map highlighting Burmese islands off the coast of the Malay Peninsula.