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Map of Southeast Asia highlighting the colonial possessions of the Netherlands (Dutch East Indies), Spain (Philippines), Britain (Straits Settlements, Burma, part of Borneo) and Portugal (East Timor). From the German atlas ‘Stielers Handatlas’.

Map of Southeast Asia highlighting the colonial possessions of the Netherlands (Dutch East Indies), Spain (Philippines), Britain (Straits Settlements, Burma, part of Borneo) and Portugal (East Timor). From the German atlas ‘Stielers Handatlas’.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: British, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Danish.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers: British, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Danish.

Map of Southeast Asia highlighting the colonial possessions of the Netherlands (Dutch East Indies), Spain (Philippines), Britain (Straits Settlements, Burma, part of Borneo) and Portugal (East Timor). From the German atlas ‘Stielers Handatlas’.

Map of Southeast Asia highlighting the colonial possessions of the Netherlands (Dutch East Indies), Spain (Philippines), Britain (Straits Settlements, Burma, part of Borneo) and Portugal (East Timor). From the German atlas ‘Stielers Handatlas’.

Navigation map of the northern South China Sea, with bathymetry (sea depth), islands, shoals and reefs. There are five maritime routes to Canton and one to Manilla marked, and inset maps of the Gulf of Tonkin and bays and islands in the Philippines.

Navigation map of the northern South China Sea, with bathymetry (sea depth), islands, shoals and reefs. There are five maritime routes to Canton and one to Manilla marked, and inset maps of the Gulf of Tonkin and bays and islands in the Philippines.

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

A mid-19th century German map of mainland Southeast Asia showing a mixture of ancient kingdoms (e.g. Birma, Siam, Anam) and the colonial possessions of Britain (Malaya, Straits Settlements) and Denmark (Nicobar Islands).

Map of Southeast Asia highlighting European colonial possessions. Unusually, the south coast of the Philippine island of Mindanao is shown twice, reflecting uncertainty about its true location. Names of indigenous peoples are listed on Borneo.