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On this map of Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

On this map of Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

This mid-19th century map of mainland Southeast Asia is divided into regions with colour-coded borders. The Birman Empire/Birmah (Myanmar) is the most detailed, with 10 provinces marked and listed in the map’s legend.

On this map of Asia, the South China Sea is labelled ‘Malayan Sea’. Small islands, shoals and reefs are shown. A label in Cochin China (Vietnam) reads ‘mountains inhabited by the uncivilized people called Kemoys’.

Map of Asia, marked with populations of cities and lengths of rivers. Mainland Southeast Asia is divided into kingdoms, but maritime Southeast Asia is mostly blank, and parts such as Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands are left off entirely.

On this map of Asia, the South China Sea is labelled ‘Malayan Sea’. Small islands, shoals and reefs are shown. A label in Cochin China (Vietnam) reads ‘mountains inhabited by the uncivilized people called Kemoys’.

Map of Asia, marked with populations of cities and lengths of rivers. Mainland Southeast Asia is divided into kingdoms, but maritime Southeast Asia is mostly blank, and parts such as Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands are left off entirely.

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

On this map of India and Southeast Asia, borders are outlined and cities underlined in different colours to show the colonial territories of the European powers. On Borneo, the names of indigenous peoples are listed (‘Dayak’s, Papua’s, Bugi’s’).

Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.

Map of India and mainland Southeast Asia, with coloured borders indicating European colonial possessions.

Map from Johannes Olivier’s book ‘Land- en Zeetogten in Nederland's Indie [Land and Sea Journeys in the Dutch Indies]’, showing European colonial possessions and indigenous kingdoms in Asia.